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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Programming_(music)" title="Programming (music)">Programming (music)</a> or <a href="Concert_program" title="Concert program">Concert program</a>.</div>

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<b>Program music</b> or <b>programmatic music</b> is a type of instrumental music that attempts to musically render an extramusical narrative or description of some aspect of world. The term was invented in the 19th century by <a href="Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Franz Liszt</a>, who himself composed a great deal of program music.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as Liszt himself noted, program music had been written for centuries before his time.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>To give an example, <a href="Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>'s <a href="Symphony_No._6_(Beethoven)" title="Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)">Sixth Symphony</a> narrates a visit to the countryside, portraying in succession a happy arrival, a quiet moment by a brook, an encounter with dancing peasants, a thunderstorm, and the peasants' song of thankgiving when the storm is over. Program music is often written so that the notes themselves convey, at least to some degree, the meaning of what is portrayed; thus the thunderstorm in Beethoven's symphony includes loud <a href="Timpani" title="Timpani">timpani</a> strokes to convey the thunder and shrill <a href="Piccolo" title="Piccolo">piccolo</a> music to depict the shrieking winds.

</p><p>Sung music, such as <a href="Opera" title="Opera">opera</a>, <a href="Oratorio" title="Oratorio">oratorio</a>, or <a href="Lieder" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieder">lieder</a> is not considered program music, even when a story is told, since the story is given directly in the lyrics.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Often, program music is accompanied by written material that clarifies the program for listeners. Beethoven's program is given in the subtitles he gave to the movements in the musical score, along with a few notations identifying the bird calls. For his <i><a href="Symphonie_fantastique" title="Symphonie fantastique">Symphonie fantastique</a></i>, <a href="Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Hector Berlioz</a> wrote a detailed program and asked that it be distributed to concert audiences before performances. Each of the four parts of <a href="Antonio_Vivaldi" title="Antonio Vivaldi">Antonio Vivaldi</a>'s <i><a href="The_Four_Seasons_(Vivaldi)" title="The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)">The Four Seasons</a></i> is affiliated with an Italian-language <a href="Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnet</a> that describes what is being portrayed.

</p><p>Program music has been composed throughout the <a href="Classical_music" title="Classical music">European classical music</a> tradition, particularly during the <a href="Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Romantic period</a> of the 19th century. Single-movement orchestral pieces of program music, which flourished in the 19th century, are often called <a href="Symphonic_poem" title="Symphonic poem">symphonic poems</a>; also "tone poems".

</p><p>The term <a href="Absolute_music" title="Absolute music">absolute music</a> is sometimes used to designate non-program music, intended to be appreciated without any particular reference to the outside world.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="16th_and_17th_centuries">16th and 17th centuries</h3></div>

<p>Composers of the <a href="Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Renaissance</a> wrote a fair amount of program music, especially for the <a href="Harpsichord" title="Harpsichord">harpsichord</a>, including works such as <a href="Martin_Peerson" title="Martin Peerson">Martin Peerson</a>'s <i>The Fall of the Leafe</i> and <a href="William_Byrd" title="William Byrd">William Byrd</a>'s <i>The Battell</i>. For the latter work, the composer provided this written description of the sections: "Souldiers sommons, marche of footemen, marche of horsmen, trumpetts, Irishe marche, bagpipe and the drone, flute and the droome, marche to the fighte, the battels be joyned, retreat, galliarde for the victorie."

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_century">18th century</h3></div>

<p>In the Baroque era, Vivaldi's <i><a href="The_Four_Seasons_(Vivaldi)" title="The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)">The Four Seasons</a></i> has poetic inscriptions in the score referring to each of the seasons, evoking spring, summer, autumn, and winter. An example of program music by <a href="J._S._Bach" class="mw-redirect" title="J. S. Bach">J. S. Bach</a> is his <i><a href="Capriccio_on_the_departure_of_a_beloved_brother" class="mw-redirect" title="Capriccio on the departure of a beloved brother">Capriccio on the departure of a beloved brother</a></i>, BWV 992.

</p><p>Program music was perhaps less often composed in the <a href="Classical_music_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical music era">Classical</a> era. At that time, perhaps more than any other, music achieved drama from its own internal resources, notably in works written in <a href="Sonata_form" title="Sonata form">sonata form</a>. Some of <a href="Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a>'s earlier symphonies may be program music for which the program is lost; for example, the composer once said that one of his earlier symphonies represents "a dialogue between God and the Sinner". It is not known which of his symphonies Haydn was referring to. His <a href="Symphony_No._8_(Haydn)" title="Symphony No. 8 (Haydn)">Symphony No. 8</a> also includes a movement named "La tempesta" that represents a storm. A minor Classical-era composer, <a href="Carl_Ditters_von_Dittersdorf" title="Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf">Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf</a>, wrote a series of programmatic symphonies based on <a href="Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>'s <i><a href="Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></i>. German composer <a href="Justin_Heinrich_Knecht" title="Justin Heinrich Knecht">Justin Heinrich Knecht</a>'s <i>Le portrait musical de la nature, ou Grande sinfonie (Musical Portrait of Nature or Grand Symphony)</i> from 1784–1785 is another 18th century example, anticipating Beethoven's Sixth Symphony by twenty years.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3></div>

<p>Program music particularly flourished in the <a href="Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Romantic</a> era.

</p><p><a href="Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a> felt a certain reluctance in writing program music, and said of his 1808 <a href="Symphony_No._6_(Beethoven)" title="Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)">Symphony No. 6</a> (<i>Pastoral</i>) that the "whole work can be perceived without description – it is more an expression of feelings rather than tone-painting".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeethoven1905[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeethoven1905[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Yet the work clearly contains depictions of bird calls, a flowing brook, a storm, and so on. Beethoven later returned to program music with his <a href="Piano_Sonata_No._26_(Beethoven)" title="Piano Sonata No. 26 (Beethoven)">Piano Sonata Op. 81a</a>, <i>Les Adieux</i>, which depicts the departure and return of his friend and patron the <a href="Archduke_Rudolf_of_Austria" title="Archduke Rudolf of Austria">Archduke Rudolf</a>.

</p><p><a href="Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Hector Berlioz</a>'s <i><a href="Symphonie_fantastique" title="Symphonie fantastique">Symphonie fantastique</a></i> was a musical narration of a hyperbolically emotional love story, the main subject being an actress with whom he was in love at the time. <a href="Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Franz Liszt</a> did provide explicit programs for many of his piano pieces and he was also the inventor of the term <a href="Symphonic_poem" title="Symphonic poem">symphonic poem</a>. In 1874, <a href="Modest_Mussorgsky" title="Modest Mussorgsky">Modest Mussorgsky</a> composed for piano a series of pieces describing seeing a gallery of ten of his friend's paintings and drawings in his <i><a href="Pictures_at_an_Exhibition" title="Pictures at an Exhibition">Pictures at an Exhibition</a></i>, later orchestrated by many composers including <a href="Maurice_Ravel" title="Maurice Ravel">Maurice Ravel</a>. The French composer <a href="Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Camille Saint-Saëns</a> wrote many short pieces of program music which he called <i>Tone Poems</i>. His most famous are probably the <a href="Danse_Macabre" title="Danse Macabre">Danse Macabre</a> and several movements from <i><a href="The_Carnival_of_the_Animals" title="The Carnival of the Animals">the Carnival of the Animals</a></i>. The composer <a href="Paul_Dukas" title="Paul Dukas">Paul Dukas</a> is perhaps best known for his tone poem <i><a href="The_Sorcerer's_Apprentice_(Dukas)" title="The Sorcerer's Apprentice (Dukas)">The Sorcerer's Apprentice</a></i>, based on a tale from <a href="Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a>.

</p><p>Possibly the most adept at musical depiction in his program music was German composer <a href="Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Richard Strauss</a>. His symphonic poems include <i><a href="Death_and_Transfiguration" title="Death and Transfiguration">Death and Transfiguration</a></i> (portraying a dying man and his entry into heaven), <i>Don Juan</i> (based on the ancient legend of <a href="Don_Juan" title="Don Juan">Don Juan</a>), <i><a href="Till_Eulenspiegel's_Merry_Pranks" title="Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks">Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks</a></i> (based on episodes in the career of the legendary German figure <a href="Till_Eulenspiegel" title="Till Eulenspiegel">Till Eulenspiegel</a>), <i><a href="Don_Quixote_(Strauss)" title="Don Quixote (Strauss)">Don Quixote</a></i> (portraying episodes in the life of <a href="Miguel_de_Cervantes" title="Miguel de Cervantes">Miguel de Cervantes</a>' character, <a href="Don_Quixote" title="Don Quixote">Don Quixote</a>), <i><a href="A_Hero's_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="A Hero's Life">A Hero's Life</a></i> (which depicts episodes in the life of an unnamed hero often taken to be Strauss himself) and <i><a href="Symphonia_Domestica" title="Symphonia Domestica">Symphonia Domestica</a></i> (which portrays episodes in the composer's own married life, including putting the baby to bed). Strauss is reported to have said that music can describe anything, even a teaspoon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGifford2012_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGifford2012-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Another composer of programmatic music was <a href="Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov">Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov</a>, whose colorful "musical pictures" include "Sadko", Op. 5, after the Russian Bylina, about the minstrel who sings to the Tsar of the Sea, the famous "'<a href="Scheherazade_(Rimsky-Korsakov)" title="Scheherazade (Rimsky-Korsakov)">Scheherazade</a>", Op. 35, after the <a href="Arabian_Nights" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian Nights">Arabian Nights</a> entertainments (where the heroine is depicted by a violin and whose stories include "<a href="Sinbad_the_Sailor" title="Sinbad the Sailor">Sinbad the Sailor</a>") and any number of orchestral suites from his operas, including <i><a href="The_Tale_of_Tsar_Saltan_(opera)" title="The Tale of Tsar Saltan (opera)">The Tale of Tsar Saltan</a></i> (which also contains "<a href="Flight_of_the_Bumblebee" title="Flight of the Bumblebee">Flight of the Bumblebee</a>"), <i><a href="The_Golden_Cockerel" title="The Golden Cockerel">The Golden Cockerel</a></i>, <i><a href="Christmas_Eve_(opera)" title="Christmas Eve (opera)">Christmas Eve</a></i>, <i><a href="The_Snow_Maiden" title="The Snow Maiden">The Snow Maiden</a></i>, and <i><a href="The_Legend_of_the_Invisible_City_of_Kitezh_and_the_Maiden_Fevroniya" title="The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevroniya">The Legend of The Invisible City of Kitezh</a></i>.

</p><p>In Scandinavia, Sibelius explored the <a href="Kalevala" title="Kalevala">Kalevala</a> legend in several tone poems, most famously in <i><a href="The_Swan_of_Tuonela" title="The Swan of Tuonela">The Swan of Tuonela</a></i>.

</p><p>One of the most famous programs, because it has never been definitively identified, is the secret non-musical idea or theme – the "Enigma" – that underlies <a href="Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Edward Elgar</a>'s <i><a href="Enigma_Variations" title="Enigma Variations">Variations on an Original Theme (Enigma)</a></i> of 1899. The composer disclosed it to certain friends, but at his request they never made it public.

</p><p>In the 19th century, program music served an important role in changing composers' conception of musical form. Their 18th century predecessors often relied on well-defined formal patterns of composition, most notably <a href="Sonata_form" title="Sonata form">sonata form</a>. With the new prominence of program music, it became possible to use the program itself as the main, or only, basis for the organization of a musical composition. Indeed, per Scruton, Liszt "considered the idea of exalting the narrative associations of music into a principle of composition to be incompatible with the continuance of traditional symphonic forms".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3></div>

<p>During the late-nineteenth and twentieth century, the increased influence of modernism and other anti-Romantic trends contributed to a decline in esteem for program music, but audiences continued to enjoy such pieces as <a href="Arthur_Honegger" title="Arthur Honegger">Arthur Honegger</a>'s depiction of a steam locomotive in <i><a href="Pacific_231" title="Pacific 231">Pacific 231</a></i> (1923). Indeed, <a href="Percy_Grainger" title="Percy Grainger">Percy Grainger</a>'s incomplete orchestral fragment <i><a href="Train_Music" class="mw-redirect" title="Train Music">Train Music</a></i> employs the same function. This music for large orchestra depicts a train moving in the mountains of Italy. <a href="Heitor_Villa-Lobos" title="Heitor Villa-Lobos">Heitor Villa-Lobos</a> similarly depicted a rural steam-driven train in <i><a href="The_Little_Train_of_the_Caipira" title="The Little Train of the Caipira">The Little Train of the Caipira</a></i> (1930).

</p><p>Indeed, an entire genre sprang up in the 1920s, particularly in the Soviet Union, of picturesque music depicting machines and factories. Well-known examples include <a href="Alexander_Mosolov" title="Alexander Mosolov">Alexander Mosolov</a>'s <i><a href="Iron_Foundry" title="Iron Foundry">Iron Foundry</a></i> (1926–27) and <a href="Sergei_Prokofiev" title="Sergei Prokofiev">Sergei Prokofiev</a>'s <i><a href="Le_pas_d'acier_(Prokofiev)" title="Le pas d'acier (Prokofiev)">Le Pas d'acier</a></i> (The Steel Step, 1926). An example from outside of the Soviet Union is <a href="George_Antheil" title="George Antheil">George Antheil</a>'s <i><a href="Ballet_m%C3%A9canique" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballet mécanique">Ballet mécanique</a></i> (1923–24).

</p><p><a href="Ottorino_Respighi" title="Ottorino Respighi">Ottorino Respighi</a> composed a number of tone poems in the 1910s and 1920s, notably three works on different aspects of the city of Rome. <a href="Gustav_Holst" title="Gustav Holst">Gustav Holst</a>'s <i><a href="The_Planets" title="The Planets">The Planets</a></i> is another well-known example, as is Russian composer <a href="Sergei_Rachmaninoff" title="Sergei Rachmaninoff">Sergei Rachmaninoff</a>'s <a href="Isle_of_the_Dead_(Rachmaninoff)" title="Isle of the Dead (Rachmaninoff)"><i>Isle of the Dead</i></a>. Although written originally for the film <i><a href="Dangerous_Moonlight" title="Dangerous Moonlight">Dangerous Moonlight</a></i>, British composer <a href="Richard_Addinsell" title="Richard Addinsell">Richard Addinsell</a>'s <i><a href="Warsaw_Concerto" title="Warsaw Concerto">Warsaw Concerto</a></i> was one of the first pieces of orchestral music composed for a film to achieve popularity in concert halls as well.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Representational_music_vis-à-vis_program_music">Representational music vis-à-vis program music</h2></div>

<p><a href="Heinrich_Ignaz_Biber" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinrich Ignaz Biber">Heinrich Ignaz Biber</a>'s <i>Sonata representativa</i> (for violin and <a href="Basso_continuo" title="Basso continuo">continuo</a>), which depicts various animals (the nightingale, the cuckoo, the cat) in a humoristic manner. This is perhaps program music but perhaps instead illustrates a distinction between "representational" music and program music properly speaking, It is possible for music to depict particular things or events, sometimes quite briefly, without actually having a program.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_types:_ballet,_incidental_music,_opera,_and_film">Related types: ballet, incidental music, opera, and film</h2></div>

<p>Music that is composed to accompany a ballet could be considered program music, even when presented separately as a concert piece; many of the classic works of the ballet repertoire, such as <a href="Tchaikovsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a>'s <i><a href="Swan_Lake" title="Swan Lake">Swan Lake</a></i>, have a storyline that the music serves to illustrate. A similar case is <a href="Incidental_music" title="Incidental music">incidental music</a> to stage plays, such as <a href="Mendelssohn" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a>'s incidental music to <a href="Shakespeare" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>'s <i><a href="A_Midsummer_Night's_Dream" title="A Midsummer Night's Dream">A Midsummer Night's Dream</a></i>. While operas themselves are not program music, their overtures often highlight episodes from the plot to come; thus the climax of Beethoven's <a href="Leonore_Overture_No._3" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonore Overture No. 3">Leonore Overture No. 3</a> (intended originally as the overture to <i><a href="Fidelio" title="Fidelio">Fidelio</a></i>) involves the trumpet calls that signal the dramatic rescue of Leonora and Florestan in Act II. Mozart's overture to <i><a href="Don_Giovanni" title="Don Giovanni">Don Giovanni</a></i> opens with the terrifying music that much later accompanies the visit of the ghost of the Commendatore, at the climax of the opera.

</p><p><a href="Film_score" title="Film score">Film scores</a> could also be considered as program music. Influenced by the late Romantic work of <a href="Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov">Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov</a>, <a href="Ottorino_Respighi" title="Ottorino Respighi">Ottorino Respighi</a>, <a href="Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Richard Strauss</a>, and others, motion picture soundtrack composers took up the banner of programmatic music following the advent of "talkies" in the 20th century. Some film scores, such as <a href="Sergei_Prokofiev" title="Sergei Prokofiev">Prokofiev</a>'s music for <i><a href="Alexander_Nevsky_(film)" title="Alexander Nevsky (film)">Alexander Nevsky</a></i> and <i><a href="Lieutenant_Kij%C3%A9" title="Lieutenant Kijé">Lieutenant Kijé (film)</a></i>, are arranged by the composer for concert performance, thus becoming mainstream instances of program music.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Programmatic_music_and_abstract_imagery">Programmatic music and abstract imagery</h2></div>

<p>A good deal of program music falls in between the realm of purely programmatic and purely absolute, with titles that clearly suggest an extramusical association, but no detailed story that can be followed and no musical passages that can be unequivocally identified with specific images. Examples would include <a href="Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Dvořák</a>'s <a href="Symphony_No._9_(Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k)" title="Symphony No. 9 (Dvořák)">Symphony No. 9, <i>From the New World</i></a> or Beethoven's <a href="Symphony_No._3_(Beethoven)" title="Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)">Symphony No. 3, <i>Eroica</i></a>.

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<ul><li><a href="Character_piece" title="Character piece">Character piece</a></li>

<li><a href="Figurative_art" title="Figurative art">Figurative art</a></li>

<li><a href="Film_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Film music">Film music</a></li>

<li><a href="Incidental_music" title="Incidental music">Incidental music</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_program_music" title="List of program music">List of program music</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_symphonic_poems" title="List of symphonic poems">List of symphonic poems</a></li>

<li><a href="Mickey_Mousing" title="Mickey Mousing">Mickey Mousing</a></li>

<li><a href="Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">Representation (arts)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sakadas_of_Argos" title="Sakadas of Argos">Sakadas of Argos</a></li>

<li><a href="Word_painting" title="Word painting">Word painting</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton (2001), article in <a href="New_Grove" class="mw-redirect" title="New Grove">New Grove</a>, section 1</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton (2001), article in <a href="New_Grove" class="mw-redirect" title="New Grove">New Grove</a>, section 2</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton (2001), article in <a href="New_Grove" class="mw-redirect" title="New Grove">New Grove</a>, section 1</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeethoven1905[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeethoven1905[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeethoven1905">Beethoven 1905</a>, .</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGifford2012-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGifford2012_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGifford2012">Gifford 2012</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton, section 2</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<p><b>Sources</b>

</p>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</style><cite class="citation wikicite" id="CITEREFBeethoven1905">Beethoven, Ludwig van (1905). “<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305212621/https://www.public-domain-content.com/books/beethoven/8.shtml">On His Own Works</a>”. In <i>Beethoven, the Man and the Artist, as Revealed in His own Words</i>, edited by Friedrich Kerst. London: Gay and Bird. (archive from 5 March 2016; accessed 11 May 2020).</cite></li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFGifford2012" class="citation web cs1">Gifford, Katya (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanitiesweb.org/human.php?s=c&p=c&a=b&ID=60">"Richard Strauss: Biography"</a>. <i>HumanitiesWeb.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation wikicite" id="CITEREFMcClary1991"><a href="Susan_McClary" title="Susan McClary">McClary, Susan</a> (1991). <i>Feminine Endings: Music, Gender, and Sexuality</i>, p. 24. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8166-1898-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation wikicite" id="CITEREFMcClary1999">McClary, Susan (1999). .</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPerle1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="George_Perle" title="George Perle">Perle, George</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/operasofalbanber00perl/"><i>The Operas of Alban Berg: Volume Two, Lulu</i></a>. California: University of California Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/operasofalbanber00perl/page/18">18–29</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-520-06616-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFScruton2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton, Roger</a> (2001). "Programme music". <i><a href="Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a></i>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.22394">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.22394</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Junod, Philippe. "The New <i>Paragone</i>: Paradoxes and Contradictions of Pictorial Musicalism", in <i>The Arts Entwined: Music and Painting in the Nineteenth Century</i>, eds. M. L. Morton and P. L. Schmunk, p. 28–29</li>

<li>Pérez-Sobrino, Paula B. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7924477/Meaning_construction_in_verbomusical_environments_Conceptual_disintegration_and_metonymy._Journal_of_Pragmatics_70_2014_130-151">"Meaning construction in verbomusical environments: Conceptual disintegration and metonymy"</a> in <i><a href="Journal_of_Pragmatics" title="Journal of Pragmatics">Journal of Pragmatics</a></i> v. 70: 130–151</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/program_music.aspx">"Program music"</a>, Encyclopedia.com</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060103040932/http://www.essentialsofmusic.com/composer/vivaldi.html">Composers: Vivaldi</a>, Essentials of Music</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070519041404/http://www.apollosfire.org/program_notes/prog_note_Beet_Schub.htm">Cleveland Baroque Orchestra: Program note for: Beethoven & Schubert in Vienna</a>, Apollo's Fire</li>

<li>James Reel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.allmusic.com/composition/mc0002371047">Alban Berg: <i>Lyric Suite</i>, for string quartet</a> at <a href="AllMusic_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="AllMusic (identifier)">AllMusic</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B0000AN4FJ">Alban Berg: <i>Lyric Suite</i></a>, <a href="Kronos_Quartet" title="Kronos Quartet">Kronos Quartet</a> with <a href="Dawn_Upshaw" title="Dawn Upshaw">Dawn Upshaw</a>, review by Robert Levine</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051022102639/http://artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/genresearch.pl?genre=programmatic">Programmatic programmatic works by American composers</a>, Art of the States</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070214000126/http://www.kitsuneensemble.org/">Information on <i>The Kaidan Suite</i></a>, a musical interpretation of Japanese ghost stories by the <a href="Kitsune" title="Kitsune">Kitsune</a> Ensemble</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTovey1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tovey, Donald Francis (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Programme Music"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Programme_Music">"Programme Music" </a></span>. <i><a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). pp. <span class="nowrap">424–</span>427.</cite></li></ul>

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